World view
China and its 55 minorities
by Prof. Dr. Türkkaya ATAÖV
With a population of close to 1.3 billion on a land mass of 9,572,900 sq. km., China is a world on its own. It borders no less than fourteen countries all the way from Mongolia in the north down to Vietnam in the south, via North Korea in the east and Pakistan, Afghanistan and Russia in the west. Although relations with the former Soviet Union, Vietnam and India have been cool in some periods of the past, there is no hostility with any neighbour now.
The Han (Chinese), who constitute the overwhelming ethnic group, account for 91.96% of the population, compared to only 0.41% and 0.64% for the much-discussed Tibetans and Uigurs. The official language is Mandarin Chinese, and there is no official religion. The bulk of the population appears to be “non-religious”, including declared atheists, with some Buddhists (8.4%) and Christians (7.1%), but far fewer Muslims (1.5%) than anticipated.
The minority peoples of China, divided into 55 nationalities, account for only 6% of the total population. That small percentage nevertheless makes up a total of 54m people. Moreover, these minorities occupy over half of the land area of the country, much of it strategically vital and rich in resources. Most of the Han Chinese are either rice and wheat farmers crowded into the valleys of the Yangtse and the Yellow Rivers or live in the fertile coastal areas. By contrast, the minorities for the most part occupy the extensive grasslands, deserts and mountain regions of the extreme north, west and south.
1949: Rights and wrongs
The minority nationalities had been part of China for many centuries, during which they developed their own cultures, but there had been no effective central government until the Communist regime was installed in 1949. This regime also professed to support the favourable aspects of the minority cultures. One of the cardinal principles of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), since its very inception, had been to cultivate good relations with the minorities. Their status was defined in a number of basic documents, such as the 1949 Common Program, the 1952 Regional Program for Autonomy, and the 1954 Constitution. Article 50 of the Common Program stated that all nationalities would be equal and that China would be a big fraternal and cooperative family and that discrimination, oppression and chauvinism would be prohibited.
The CCP also realised that the different conditions in the minority areas would slow down change, and that local realities would necessitate a tolerant administration. This policy was generally adhered to, and political representation reflected local demography. While most government business was conducted in the widely-spoken Han tongue, all minorities developed their languages or dialects. The speed with which the ethnic minorities were integrated into the “big family” varied from one region to another. But there was some similarity everywhere both in the forward steps taken and in the problems that arose.
Among the negative aspects of the attempts made at change were the domination of Han officials, the failure of the Han to learn the local tongues, the introduction of the drastic commune system, and some damage to local economies. However, the lives of the minority peoples improved considerably. Living standards were incomparably higher.
The Tibet experience
Among the minority areas, Tibet was one of the most remote territories on earth. The size of Western Europe, it had a population of about two million. One-fifth of the males were monks living in 2,700 monasteries. Most of the land was owned either by these monasteries or by aristocratic families. The peasants on these estates were all but serfs, leading a prescribed life. Punishments for deviators included flaying alive. While it would be wrong to exaggerate the unpleasant aspects of past life, the museum in Lhasa, the capital, contained the skin of a man flayed from head to toe. Even the Dalai Lama wrote a poem, later the cause of some embarrassment, in praise of the new regime, describing it as “the timely rain.”
The Tibetan uprising in 1959, however, was the most serious resistance to the Communist rule. Although the Chinese government now acknowledges that some errors were made after 1959, foremost among them the introduction of the overwhelming Han culture, the radical improvements in education, health, and prosperity are undeniable. Regardless of all the criticisms made in the past, the Chinese minorities have received been much more satisfactory, civilized, and democratic treatment than many minorities elsewhere, such as American “Indians,” Australian Aborigines, or Israel’s Palestinians. Today, local languages have been revived, and the practice of religion is permitted. Under the circumstances, one may safely assert that there will not be another Great Leap Forward, another Cultural Revolution, or another Gang of Four.
Preserving frontiers
I believe in the preservation of the existing frontiers in China, India, Iran, Iraq and elsewhere. There is a drive on the part of a few powerful countries to encourage secessions and the break-up of other states. But there can be no longer any doubt that the war in Iraq, for instance, was an unprovoked, unnecessary, and an unlawful invasion that turned into a colonial-style occupation. It is already a moral and political catastrophe. We cannot tolerate the emergence of similar threats to world security. China should stay as it is and prosper.
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The overseas Chinese
The land mass in the Far East officially known as the People’s Republic of China is not only the homeland of the Chinese, but also of the 55 minorities. Conversely, there are also the overseas Chinese. For centuries, China had links with southern Asia, and consequently many Chinese reached out, mostly by sea, and settled abroad, constituting minorities and at times majorities.
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims went south as early as the 5th century, and trade developed accordingly. They were mostly attracted by business prospects. Wherever they went, they were, on the whole, hardworking, innovative and spirited. Trading Chinese communities settled and flourished during the Sung and the Yuan dynasties. A Muslim Chinese admiral led seven expeditions with large fleets, trying to conquer big islands like Java. He crossed the Indian Ocean and reached the east coast of Africa. Substantial Chinese communities were thus formed several hundred years ago.
Often, the Chinese became the leading spirit in their new domiciles, intermarrying in some countries but largely preserving their unique and developed culture, and in almost all instances contributing to the general wealth of their adopted countries. Some of the south Asian economic centres, such as Singapore, became overwhelmingly Chinese. Hong Kong was also a Chinese land but destined to be re-united with mainland China. Taiwan had been a part of China, but later found itself with a government different from the one that ruled the mainland. In Malaya, close to 40 percent of the population was Chinese. There were more than 2.5 million Chinese each in Thailand and Indonesia, and close to a million in the Philippines. Thus, in some countries, the Chinese were minorities in much bigger populations.
Wanted and unwanted
Regardless of their relative numbers, the Chinese were distinguishable from other peoples. They had commercial talent and the capacity to lead successful lives. They represented centres of commerce, technology, and wealth. Being talented, wealthy and at times exploitative, they incurred the hostility of others. As was the case in Java under Dutch rule, there were sometimes pogroms against them. However, Non-Chinese rulers also found them useful: their productivity and the riches that they would create were indispensable. Thailand was one of the countries which treated its Chinese community fairly.
Moreover, the overseas Chinese represented a great civilization. They had, in the north, a vast empire with a great potential. Irrespective of their personal tendencies, they were generally proud of the achievements of mainland China. Cultural consciousness was always strong among the Chinese diaspora, and they were proud even of those who were exiled – like the great Sun Yat-Sen.
(DIPLOMAT - January 2006 - Ankara)